In science, a theory is a reasonable explanation of observed events that are related

مطالعه متون زبان اصل و تلاش برای فهم آن، یکی از راه های اساسی در بالا بردن «شم زبانی» است.
متن زیر از مجموعه متون تافل انتخاب شده است.

In science, a theory is a reasonable explanation of observed events that are related. A theory often involves an imaginary model that helps scientists picture the way an observed event could be produced. A good example of this is found in the kinetic molecular theory, in which gases are pictured as being made up of many small particles that are in constant motion.

A useful theory, in addition to explaining past observations, helps to predict events that have not as yet been observed. After a theory has been publicized, scientists design experiments to test the theory. If observations confirm the scientist's predictions, the theory is supported. If observations do not confirm the predictions, the scientists must search further. There may be a fault in the experiment, or the theory may have to be revised or rejected.

Science involves imagination and creative thinking as well as collecting information and performing experiments. Facts by themselves are not science. As the mathematician Jules Henri Poincare said, "Science is built with facts just as a house is built with bricks, but a collection of facts cannot be called science any more than a pile of bricks can be called a house."

Most scientists start an investigation by finding out what other scientists have learned about a particular problem. After known facts have been gathered, the scientist comes to the part of the investigation that requires considerable imagination. Possible solutions to the problem are formulated. These possible solutions are called hypotheses. In a way, any hypothesis is a leap into the unknown. It extends the scientist's thinking beyond the known facts. The scientist plans experiments, performs calculations, and makes observations to test hypotheses. Without hypothesis, further investigation lacks purpose and direction. When hypotheses are confirmed, they are incorporated into theories.

مطالعه متون زبان اصل و تلاش برای فهم آن، یکی از راه های اساسی در بالا بردن «شم زبانی» است

مطالعه متون زبان اصل و تلاش برای فهم آن، یکی از راه های اساسی در بالا بردن «شم زبانی» است.
متن زیر از مجموعه متون تافل انتخاب شده است.

Smoking is the term that is generally defined in context of inhaling tobacco when it is burnt. It is practiced in several forms, viz. Cigarette, Cigar, Hookahs, Bidi, vaporizers etc. It is a known fact since long times that smoking is injurious to health. This is even clearly embedded on the commercial packs containing cigarettes etc. But despite the warning there is no reduction in the sales of cigarettes in the society. On the contrary, an up rise in consumption of number of cigarettes has been noticed. Here cigarette smoking is emphasised; the reason being that it is the most common practice of inhaling tobacco smoke in the masses.

Everyone seems to be aware of the fact that smoking causes lung cancer. But it hardly matters to those who smoke. As the disease occurs after due course of time, it leads to a state of helplessness. By the time the disease is diagnosed it has already done sufficient damage to the lung tissues and other systemic organs of the body.

In a report published in the yare 2007 it was stated that about more than 4 million people die due to smoking. This statistics are proof enough to highlight the effects of smoking. Smoking regularly decreases the life span of an individual by 7-8 years. Current health report warns against the surge in premature death of individuals in the industrialised countries. Men are affected more as compared to women only due to the factor that they inhale more smoke as compared to their counter parts.

Smoking may lead to development of various cardiovascular diseases. These diseases are related to heart and the supplying blood vessels. Smoking affects the functioning of heart in various ways.

The foremost is that it paves way for the deposition of cholesterol in the arteries that supply blood to the heart. This leads to hampered supply of blood to the heart and results in various severe complications like a heart failure. Blockage to vessels also leads to decreased blood supply to extremities of the body, resulting in gangrene and organ dysfunction in the longer run. In a serious condition clots may be formed in the blood which may block the flow in the vessels supplying heart and brain. This may lead to severe consequences like paralysis or even death in some cases.

Another common medical condition is the difficulty in breathing which is known as Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease. It can be defined as a syndrome, i.e. a group of disease. Obstruction in the airflow occurs in this condition which may lead to difficulty in breathing. Respiratory system is weakened due to damaged basic units which are alveoli. This may show up as breathlessness and chronic cough as the presenting symptoms. In some persons it also acts as the predisposing factor for Asthma.

Besides smokers are also at increased risk of developing high blood pressure which may result in hypertension. This disease involves various other organs of the body like kidney, liver and eyes. Decrease in the functioning of the kidney may lead to serious complications which occur due to accumulation of the waste products in the body. Similarly, a person affected by hypertension is in turn prone to develop cataracts and other visual problems like macular degeneration.

Smoking is more dangerous as it poses an equal threat to the passive smokers. They are the persons who don’t smoke actively but inhale it as released by an active smoker. ‘Smoking kills’ is the phrase enough to define the dangers of smoking.

 

 

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Gold

Gold
The beauty and rarity of gold, and the fact that it does not rust or tarnish, have made it highly valued throughout history. Pure gold is soft. It is generally hardened by alloying (mixing) it with copper
or silver. The gold content of these alloys is measured in carats. Pure gold is said to be 24 carats, whereas an alloy of equal parts of gold and, say, silver is said to be 12-carat gold. Eighteen-carat gold
is 18/24 pure gold; that is, 75 per cent gold. Mining and panning for gold Gold is found as a pure metal. It occurs either in the form of grains in sand or gravel, or as veins in rock. Very occasionally, much larger pieces are found on the surface. Piece Nowadays, most gold is obtained from mines. The rock is blasted out with explosives and then crushed by heavy machinery. The powdered rock is then treated with chemicals to extract the gold.
Grains of gold are found in the beds of some rivers or streams. This gold can be collected with a shallow metal pan in which the sand and water are carefully swirled around. The sand is washed over the edge while the gold, which is much heavier, sinks to the bottom. There is plenty of gold in the sea, but vast amounts of sea water would have to be treated to obtain even a little gold.  So far, no one has found a way of doing this cheaply.
(Oxford Children Encyclopedia 1992)

Of the Liberty of Thought and Discussion

Of the Liberty of Thought and Discussion

THE time, it is to be hoped, is gone by when any defence 
would be necessary of the "liberty of the press" as one of the securities against corrupt or tyrannical government. No argument, we may suppose, can now be needed, against permitting a legislature or an executive, not identified in interest with the people, to prescribe opinions to them, and determine what doctrines or what arguments they shall be allowed to hear. This aspect of my the question, besides, has been so often and so triumphantly enforced by preceding writers, that it needs not be specially insisted on in this place. Though the law of England, on the subject of the press, is as servile to this day as it was in the time of the Tudors, there is little danger of its being actually put in force against political discussion, except during some temporary panic, when fear of insurrection drives ministers and judges from 
their propriety; and, speaking generally, it is not, in 28constitutional countries, to be apprehended that the 
government, whether completely responsible to the people or not, will often attempt to control the expression of opinion, except when in doing so it makes itself the 
organ of the general intolerance of the public.

یک دفتر بردارید و متونی را که در کانال میگذاریم در آن بنویسید و سپس ترجمه کنید. بعد از یک یا دو روز ترجمه متن را در کانال میگذاریم، اشتباهات خود را پیدا کنید و اصلاح نمایید. سعی کنید علت اشتباهتان را بیابید و در ذهن خود ثبت کنید.

دوستانی که ترم اول و دوم را گذرانده اند سعی کنند «سازه ها» را مشخص کنند و با روش تدریس شده متن را تحلیل کنند.